RAM - random access memory 

RAM (random access memory) is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the computer's procesor. RAM is much faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer, the hard disk, floppy disk, and CD-ROM. However, the data in RAM stays there only as long as your computer is running. When you turn the computer off, RAM loses its data. When you turn your computer on again, your operating system and other files are once again loaded into RAM, usually from you h ard disk.


RAM can be compared to a person's short-term memory and the hard disk to the long-term memory. The short-term memory focuses on work at hand, but can only keep so many facts in view at one time. If short-term memory fills up, your brain sometimes is able to refresh it from facts stored in long-term memory. A computer also works this way. If RAM fills up, the processor needs to continually go to the hard disk to overlay old data in RAM with new, slowing down the computer's operation. Unlike the hard disk which can become completely full of data so that it won't accept any more, RAM never runs out of memory. It keeps operating, but much more slowly than you may want it to.

Main Types of RAM

There are two main types of RAM:

• DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
• SRAM (Static Random Access Memory).

The two types of RAM differ in the technology they use to hold data, with DRAM being the more common type. In terms of speed, SRAM is faster. DRAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second while SRAM does not need to be refreshed, which is what makes it faster than DRAM.

Types of RAM

Over the evolution of the computer there have been different variations of RAM. Some of the more common examples are DIMM, RIMM, SIMM, SO-DIMM, and SOO-RIMM. Below is an example image of a 512MB DIMM computer memory module, a typical piece of RAM found in desktop computers. This memory module would be installed into one of the memory slots on a motherboard.

What is vertual memory?

virtual memory

Virtual memory is a feature of an operating system (OS) that allows a computer to compensate for shortages of physical memory by temporarily transferring pages of data from random access memory (RAM) to disk storage.

Virtual memory combines your computer’s RAM with temporary space on your hard disk. When RAM runs low, virtual memory moves data from RAM to a space called a paging file. Moving data to and from the paging file frees up RAM so your computer can complete its work.

The more RAM your computer has, the faster your programs will generally run. If a lack of RAM is slowing your computer, you might be tempted to increase virtual memory to compensate. However, your computer can read data from RAM much more quickly than from a hard disk, so adding RAM is a better solution.

The total amount of RAM (Random Access Memory) installed might not always be sufficient to run all the applications on the system. Windows memory management implements and manages what is called Virtual Memory. It’s the method of extending the available physical memory on a computer. PageFile is a file on disk which is used to swap physical memory pages to and from a disk. Virtual Memory comprises of total available physical memory(RAM) on the computer and size of the PageFile on disk. 

 vertual memory manager

Virtual Memory Manager is responsible for mapping physical memory and virtual address spaces for a process. It keeps track of each mapping for VAS addresses using a page table, and the mapping information itself is stored in a Page Table Entry (PTE). The PTE is 4K in size and shares the same space as other system information and structures of the system.

Already for a long time users encountered the problem of placement in the program memory, the amount exceeding the available free memory. The decision was splitting program at the part called overlay. Zero overlay began to run first. When he finished his performance, he caused another overlay. All overlays stored on the disc and shifted between memory and disk operating system tools. However, the program broken down into parts and upload their planning in the OP had to make programmer.
The development of methods of computational process in this area led to the technique known as virtual memory. Virtual called resource to users or user programs submitted owning properties, which it does not have in reality. For example, the user may be provided virtual OP, the amount of which exceeds all available in real OP. User program writes as if in its possession available homogeneous OP large amount, but in reality, all data used by a program stored on one or more different types of MY course on discs, and if necessary parts are displayed in real memory.
Virtual memory (CAP) – a combination of software and hardware that allow users to write programs whose size exceeds the available OP. For this EP solves the following problems:
– VM places the data into different types, such as part of the program in the OP, and some on disk;
– Moves as needed between CL data of various types, such as downloads of the desired program from the disc in the OP;
– Converts virtual addresses into physical.

The Fastest Desktop PC Ever

The Fastest Desktop PC Ever

 

In the words of LT Pete "Maverick" Mitchell, "I feel the need....the need for speed!" Well, at least that's what Intel is feeling as it just announced that it will be putting its absurd 72-core Knight's Landing supercomputer chip into production. However, that isn't even the most exciting part. The most exciting part is that the Knight's Landing, which is Intel's fastest chip to date, will be going into desktop workstations that will contain enough computational power to make Doc Brown's overloaded speakers look like a kids karaoke machine.

PC World recently reported that the company is planning on shipping a "limited number of workstations" that will come equipped with the super-fast supercomputer chip in the first half of 2016. As a result PC makers will have the ability to adopt Intel's supercomputer silicon in desktop models on a greater scale, according to Intel's Charles Wuischpard. I don't know about you, but I'm not sure I can handle a chip like this being in something that is sitting in my room or my office. But then again the power is very alluring.

The main question that is going to be on everyone's mind is, of course, what kind of specs we can expect from the Knight's Landing chip. This chip differs from the ones currently in your desktop in the fact that this supercomputer processor puts all of its cores onto a single piece of silicon. Then, all of these processors are bundled up with 16GB of on-package MCDRAM memory into a PCI-E add-in card. This is very similar to the ridiculous Nvidia GPUs that are currently being installed on supercomputers around the world.

Once you have all of this packed together and installed inside your computer you are left with a piece of hardware that is capable of computing single-precision calculations at a rate of 8 teraflops, or double-precision calculations at over 3 teraflops. PC World also noted that this chip will be used by the United States Department of Energy inside of its 9,300-core Cori supercomputer and, in addition to that, Intel has also claimed that 50 different manufacturers will ship systems that use this chip in time.this is a really good proceser.its better then amd procesor but this procesor is expensive more then amd prosesor but perfomance is really good high perfomance.

What Is Computer And Computer Genaration

Computer is a electronic device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular form and of performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined but variable set of procedural instructions (program) to produce a result in the form of information or signals.A computer is generally defined as a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it responds to a specific set of instruction in a well-defined manner and it can executed a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You probably already know that you can use a computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web. You can also use it to edit or create  spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.Throughout this tutorial, we'll show you some of the most important things you need to know about computers, including how to set up your computer, how to interact with the desktop and operating system, and what kinds of computers are available. We'll also introduce you to some basic troubleshooting strategies you can use if your computer isn't working correctly.

Generation  Description
	First Generation The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
	Second Generation The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
	Third Generation The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

The the late 1960s and early 70s, there was much talk about "generations" of computer technology. This photo illustrates what were commonly known as the three generations:

1. First generation: Vacuum tubes (left). Mid 1940s. IBM pioneered the arrangment of vacuum tubes in pluggable modules such as the one shown here on the left. The IBM 650 was a first-generation computer.
2. Second generation: Transistors (right). 1956. The era of miniaturization begins. Transistors are much smaller than vacuum tubes, draw less power, and generate less heat. Discrete transistors are soldered to circuit boards like the one shown, with intereconnections accomplished by stencil-screened conductive patterns on the reverse side. The IBM 7090 was a second-generation computer.
3. Third generation: Integrated circuits (foreground), silicon chips contain multiple transistors. 1964. A pioneering example is the ACPX module used in the IBM 360/91, which, by stacking layers of silicon over a ceramic substrate, accommodated over 20 transistors per chip; the chips could be packed together onto a circuit board to achieve unheard-of logic densities. The IBM 360/91 was a hybrid second- and third-generation computer.

Omitted from this taxonomy is the "zeroth" generation computer based on metal gears (such as the IBM 407) or mechanical relays (such as the Mark I), and the post-3rd generation computers based on Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates against each generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.

System Shutdown Faster

System Shutdown Faster

 

 

 

When you shutdown your Windows XP computer, it may take more time to complete the shutdown process. Slow shutdowns are caused by a number of factors. One of the common causes is the Clear Page file at Shutdown option enabled.
Virtual memory support uses a system page file to swap pages of memory to disk when they are not used. On a running system, this page file is opened exclusively by the operating system, and it is well protected. However, systems that are configured to allow booting to other operating systems might have to make sure that the system page file is wiped clean when this system shuts down. This ensures that sensitive information from process memory that might go into the page file is not available to an unauthorized user who manages to directly access the page file.
When this option is enabled, it causes the system page file to be cleared upon clean shutdown. This takes considerable time of the Operating System to flush-out the page file, thus causing the slow shutdown. You may disable ClearPageFileAtShutdown option to improve shutdown times. But the pagefile.sys will be intact and accessible via other Operating System, in case or dual or multi-boot.
Some points to improve the shutdown times
Start Registry Editor and navigate to the following key:
[HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Session Manager\Memory Management]
Set ClearPageFileAtShutdown value to 0
Or, using Group Policy Editor [for Windows XP Professional]
Click Start, Run and type Secpol.msc
Click Local Policies | Security Options
In the right-pane, set Shutdown: Clear virtual memory pagefile to Disabled
However, this setting is not the only cause for slow shutdowns. Non-responsive programs and Services also contribute to slow shutdowns. If the problem is seen recently after installing a third-party driver or software, try a System Restore rollback to see if that resolves the slow shutdown problem.
Other checkpoints
Try a clean-boot troubleshooting. Clean-boot troubleshooting is designed to isolate a performance problem. To perform clean-boot troubleshooting, you must take a number of actions, and then restart the computer after each action (to test whether the action resolved the problem). These two articles will help you isolate the problem.
IMPROVE XP SHUTDOWN SPEED <-- I LOVE THIS TWEAK
This tweak reduces the time XP waits before automatically closing any running programs when you give it the command to shutdown.
Go to Start then select Run
Type 'Regedit' and click ok
Find 'HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Control Panel\Desktop\'
Select 'WaitToKillAppTimeout'
Right click and select 'Modify'
Change the value to '1000'
Click 'OK'
Now select 'HungAppTimeout'
Right click and select 'Modify'
Change the value to '1000'
Click 'OK'
Now find 'HKEY_USERS\.DEFAULT\Control Panel\Desktop'
Select 'WaitToKillAppTimeout'
Right click and select 'Modify'
Change the value to '1000'
Click 'OK'
Now find 'HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\Cur rentControlSet\Control\'
Select 'WaitToKillServiceTimeout'
Right click and select 'Modify'
Change the value to '1000'
Click 'OK'
OPTIMIZE DISPLAY SETTINGS
Windows XP can look sexy but displaying all the visual items can waste system resources. To optimise:
1.Go to Start
2. Click Settings
3. Click Control Panel
4. Click System
5. Click Advanced tab
6. In the Performance tab click Settings
7. Leave only the following ticked:
- Show shadows under menus
- Show shadows under mouse pointer
- Show translucent selection rectangle
- Use drop shadows for icons labels on the desktop
- Use visual styles on windows and buttons
DISABLE PREFETCH ON LOW MEMORY SYSTEMS
Prefetch is designed to speed up program launching by preloading programs into memory - not a good idea is memory is in short supply, as it can make programs hang. To disable prefetch:
1. Click ‘Start’ then ‘Run’
2. Type in ‘Regedit’ then click ‘Ok’
3. Navigate to ‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\Cur rentControlSet\Control\Session Manager\Memory Management\PrefetchParameters\ ‘
4. Right-click on “EnablePrefetcher” and set the value to ‘0′
5. Reboot.
ENSURE XP IS USING DMA MODE
XP enables DMA for Hard-Drives and CD-Roms by default on most ATA or ATAPI (IDE) devices. However, sometimes computers switch to PIO mode which is slower for data transfer - a typical reason is because of a virus. To ensure that your machine is using DMA:
1. Open ‘Device Manager’
2. Double-click ‘IDE ATA/ATAPI Controllers’
3. Right-click ‘Primary Channel’ and select ‘Properties’ and then ‘Advanced Settings’
4. In the ‘Current Transfer Mode’ drop-down box, select ‘DMA if Available’ if the current setting is ‘PIO Only’
Details of ip address and Mac and other
ipconfig/all
MAKE PROGRAMS LOAD FASTER
This little tweak tends to work for most programs. If your program doesn’t load properly just undo the change. For any program:
Right-click on the icon/shortcut you use to launch the program
Select properties
In the ‘target’ box, add ‘ /prefetch:1′ at the end of the line.
Click “Ok” Voila - your programs will now load faster.
IMPROVE SWAP FILE PERFORMANCE
If you have more than 256MB of RAM this tweak will considerably improve your performance. It basically makes sure that your PC uses every last drop of memory (faster than swap file) before it starts using the swap file.
Go to Start then Run
Type “msconfig.exe” then ok
Click on the System.ini tab
Expand the 386enh tab by clicking on the plus sign
Click on new then in the blank box type”ConservativeSwapfileUsage =1″
Click OK
Restart PC
IMPROVE BOOT TIMES
A great new feature in Microsoft Windows XP is the ability to do a boot defragment. This places all boot files next to each other on the disk to allow for faster booting. By default this option in enables but on some builds it is not so below is how to turn it on.
Go to Start Menu and Click Run
Type in “Regedit” then click ok
Find “HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\M icrosoft\Dfrg\BootOpt imizeFunction”
Select “Enable” from the list on the right
Right on it and select “Modify”
Change the value to “Y to enable”
Reboot
DISABLE SYSTEM SOUNDS
surprisingly, the beeps that your computer makes for various system sounds can slow it down, particularly at startup and shut-down. To fix this turn off the system sounds:
Open Control Panel
Click Sounds and Audio Devices
Check Place volume icon in taskbar
Click Sounds Tab
Choose “No Sounds” for the Sound Scheme
Click “No”
Click “Apply”
Click “OK”
SPEED UP FOLDER ACCESS - DISABLE LAST ACCESS UPDATE
If you have a lot of folders and subdirectories on your computer, when you access directory XP wastes a lot of time updating the time stamp showing the last access time for that directory and for ALL sub directories. To stop XP doing this you need to edit the registry. If you are uncomfortable doing this then please do not attempt.

Go to Start and then Run and type “regedit”
Click through the file system until you get to “HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSys tem”
Right-click in a blank area of the window on the right and select ‘DWORD Value’
Create a new DWORD Value called ‘NtfsDisableLastAccessUpdate’
Then Right click on the new value and select ‘Modify’
Change the Value Data to ‘1′
Click ‘OK’
TURN OFF SYSTEM RESTORE
System Restore can be a useful if your computer is having problems, however storing all the restore points can literally take up Gigabytes of space on your hard drive. To turn off System Restore:
Open Control Panel
Click on Performance and Maintenance
Click on System
Click on the System Restore tab
Tick ‘Turn off System Restore on All Drives’
Click ‘Ok’
⦁    SPEED UP FOLDER BROWSING
you may have noticed that every time you open my computer to browse folders that there is a slight delay. This is because Windows XP automatically searches for network files and printers every time you open Windows Explorer. To fix this and to increase browsing significantly:
1. Open My Computer
2. Click on Tools menu
3. Click on Folder Options
4. Click on the View tab.
5. Uncheck the automatically search for network folders and printers check box
6. Click Apply
7. Click Ok
8. Reboot your computer

Simple Command, tricks and track of MS DOS

Simple Command, tricks and track of MS DOS (Disk Operating System) for supporting os

Command of Dos for winxp

 

 

 

Step by Step backward from Folder     cd.. Press Enter 
Step by Step Enter in Folder     cd “Folder Name”e.g Cd madan (if u have space bet2in multi text folder using inverting coma) eg cd “My Softwar”
Enter in another volume or Drive     for example C drive to D Drive D: Press Enter
To View File or Folder            Dir press Enter
To make a folder                md “Folder Name” e.g     md madan
To Delete Folder                rd  “Foler Name E.g     rd madan
Clear Screen                 Cls Press enter
Close DOS                     Exit Press enter
Open Program    Start “Application Name” eg start photoshop
To Find Ip Address any site         ping “Site” eg ping www.facebook.com press enter
FAT to NTFS system            Type for example "convert d: /fs:ntfs"
To lock Folder                 cacls “Folder Name” /p everyone:n Press Enter
                        Example cacls madan /p everyone:n  press enter
                        Choose Y then press Enter
To Unlock Folder                 Same Command change n to f for example
                        Cacls madan /p everyone:f press enter
                        Choose Y then press enter
To Copy Files                xcopy “Location” Destination eg
Xcopy d:\Madan\Video g:\virsatile\madan press enter   
To Format Drive                Format Location of drive eg Format H: press Enter
To Hack user password             net user “user name” give one space * press Enter
Eg net user madan * press enter then create ur password
To remove user password            same method twice time press Enter
    Eg net user madan * press enter twice time without create password
To Create New user account    open Dos command Type net user “user name” \Add press Enter E.g net user madan \add
To delete any user account    open Dos command Type net user “user name” \Del press enter E.g net user versatile \Del
About chkdsk
Chkdsk is a utility that checks the computer's hard drive status for any cross-linked or any additional errors with the hard drive.
Windows 2000 and Windows XP chkdsk syntax
Checks a disk and displays a status report.
CHKDSK [volume [[path] filename]]] [/F] [/V] [/R] [/X] [/I] [/C] [/L[:size]]
volume    Specifies the drive letter (followed by a colon), mount point, or volume name.
filename    FAT only: Specifies the files to check for fragmentation.
/F    Fixes errors on the disk.
/V    On FAT/FAT32: Displays the full path and name of every file on the disk.
/R    Locates bad sectors and recovers readable information (implies /F).
/L:size    NTFS only: Changes the log file size to the specified number of kilobytes. If size is not specified, displays current size.
/X    Forces the volume to dismount first if necessary. All opened handles to the volume would then be invalid (implies /F).
/I    NTFS only: Performs a less vigorous check of index entries.
/C    NTFS only: Skips checking of cycles within the folder structure.
/p    Check even if the drive is not flagged dirty, bad.
   

This is Only for Supporting OS

Registry Editor
First of all Type in Run “Regedit” n do this
⦁    (Block usb Service)HEKEY LOCAL MACHINE\System\CURRENT Control set\service\usbstore  Change 3 to 4 of “Start” of  right side
⦁    for multi Messanger HEKEY_current_user-\Software\ yahoo\paper\Test “Create a new DwordValue in the Right pane name is “Plural” n Dwordvalue is “2” then open yahoo messanger multi times as u wish that’s it n having fun guys 
⦁    (change Service package)  HEKEY LOCAL MACHINE\System\CURRENT Control set\Control\Windows N find out CSDVersion in Right panel Modify 200 to 300(for service 2 to 3) that’s it.
⦁    Hide (Turn off Run) HEKEY LOCAL MACHINE\Software\Microsoft\Windows\Current Control Set\Windows\Policies “Create a new key in Policies name is “Explorer” n create new Dwordvaue in right pane then Modify 0 to 1(Note: for hide Run Dwordvalue name is Norun and For hide Turn off Dwordvalue is Noclose)
⦁    In other hand We can hide Run, logoff and  Turn off Button using by Tewak Now Power pack Progarm  
⦁    (This trick is only for winxp changing start with ur name)- {First of all u have to  hacker file Whose name is Resource Hacker Download it from ur internet} 
⦁    I have already this hacker let’s do it open “ReHacker” File\File menu open\Local disk c:\Windows\ Explorer\String Table\Choose number “37”\”1033” look at the right Side u can see “Start” then u can change start with ur any words as u wish
⦁    Click “Compile Script” Button n save as it .EXE format from File menu with ur words where u use in replacing Start Eg.Madan.exe
⦁    Now go to Registry Editor - HEKEY LOCAL MACHINE\Software\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\ Select Winlogon look at the Right side find out “shell” n open it
Change Explorer.exe. with ur word which is in save .Exe format earlier time Eg Madan.exe at last logoff ur system one time n open it (u can see ur word in Start Button ) 

Group Policy Editor
First of all Type in Run “Gpedit.msc” n do this
⦁    (Hide drives in My Computer Which u want ) -User Configuration\Administrative Template\Windows Component\Windows Explorer look at the right side n find out “Hide these specified drives in my computer” open it choose “Enabled” n choose the drive which u want hide From Dropdown arrow of “Pick all of the following combinations” Category 
(Note: In this way u can also change Desktop and Control Panel settings from Administrative Template) 
⦁    (Increase the internet Speed)-Computer Configuration\ Administrative Template\Network\QoS Packet Scheduler look at the right side u can c “Limit reservable Bandwidth” potions  open it  choose Enabled n Decrease Bandwidth limit(%)  20 to 0 that’s it.(note: if Bandwidth(%) is 20 in case OS is automatically take 20% internet speed that’s why ur internet will be slow) ok guys thanks for learning this method

WinToFlash Step by step Guide Install Windows XP from USB Flash drive

WinToFlash Step by step Guide Install Windows XP from USB Flash drive:

 

 

 

Requirements:
-USB Flash disk/Flash drive/Pen drive/Thumb drive, etc
-Computer with CD/DVD drive to build this Windows XP setup Flash disk (or you may use computer without CD/DVD drive, but you have to copy Windows XP setup files from another computer to your hard disk)
-Computer with or without CD/DVD drive (e.g. Aspire One)
 Step1: Download WinToFlash here http://wintoflash.com/download/en/
    from the Author: This software may contain bugs (spelling too).
    So if you find any spelling error please writes a comment and correct it
    or report to support@novicorp.com
    don't forget to write your WinToFlash version.
Step2: Extract the zip file, and then double click on WinToFlash.exe
 




Step 3: Click Accept button...

Step4:
This program will transfer Windows setup from CD or DVD to flash drive Recommended to switch on Wizard mode for users have no experience of Windows setup fine tuning Windows setup transfer wizard Following basic instructions you will transfer Windows setup program to flash drive and install Windows on PC have no CD or DVD drive
Click the button to enter Wizard mode...



Step5: This program will help you to install Windows
from a flashto access other features and
advanced options switch to advanced mode
(for advanced users).
For now, we will use wizard mode instead of
advanced mode, so click Next... -
 






 step6: Specify locations of files and drive
On Windows files path click Select button
Step7: Select CD/DVD drive which contains
Windows XP CD or folder which contains
Windows XP files... then click

step8:Specify locations of files and drive
On USB drive click Select buttonStep9:
 Select "I Accepted the terms of the license
agreement" Then click Continue...











 Step10: Warning! Formatting will erase ALL DATA on target disk. To format press OK Click OK...
Step11: Please wait while WinToFlash transferring
Windows setup to flash drive


Step12: Finished...click Next then Exit
USB Flash drive ready











 On computer without CD/DVD drive (e.g. Aspire
One) you must change the first boot order to USB
Flash drive From BIOS. How to do this?
Change Boot order from BIOS:
This is just for example (Aspire 4710)
your BIOS interface may be slightly different
Step 1: Plug a Flash drive into a USB port on your
Computer/laptop
Step 2:Turn on your laptop then hit F2 rapidly
(or Del for some other machine)
then go to Boot tab > change boot order > then hit
F10 key to Save and Exit
 





Now you can boot from USB Flash drive, first select
1st, text mode setup (Boot from flash again after
Finished) then... on the first restart, select
2nd, GUI mode setup, continue setup + 1st start
 Of Windows Install Windows XP as usual...
Good luck... Enjoy Yourself
Thanks and Nice Meeting ok Bye.